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PublicGoodsandCommonResources公共物品和共有资源Chapter11Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,

Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”FreegoodsprovideaspecialchallengeforeconomicanalysisMostgoodsinourecono

myareallocatedinmarkets……forthesegoods,pricesarethesignalsthatguidethedecisionsofbuyersandsellers.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandder

iveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”免费物品向经济分析提出了特殊的挑战。在我们的经济中，大部分物品是在市场中配置的。…对这些物品来说，价格是引导买者和卖者决策的信号。Harcou

rt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Whengoodsareavailablefreeofcharge,themarketfor

cesthatnormallyallocateresourcesinoureconomyareabsent.当一些物品可以免费得到时，在正常情况下，经济中配置资源的市场力量就不存在了。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemsc

opyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Whenagooddoesnothaveapriceattachedtoit,privatemarketscannotensurethatt

hegoodisproducedandconsumedintheproperamounts.当一种物品没有价格时，私人市场就不能保证该物品生产和消费的适当数量。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Theb

estthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Insuchcases,governmentpolicycanpotentiallyremedythemarketfailurethatresults,andraiseeconomicwell-bei

ng.在上述情况下，政府政策可以潜在地解决市场失灵，并增进经济福利。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoodsWhenthi

nkingaboutthevariousgoodsintheeconomy,itisusefultogroupthemaccordingtotwocharacteristics:uIsthegoodexcl

udable?uIsthegoodrival?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.不同类型的物品在考虑经济中的各种物品时，根据两个

特点来对物品分类是有用的:u物品有排他性吗？u物品有竞争性吗?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoods不

同类型的物品uExcludability排他性uPeoplecanbepreventedfromenjoyingthegood.可以阻止一个人使用一种物品时该物品的特性uLawsrecognizeandenforceprivatepropertyrights.法律承

认并对私人产权进行保护。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoods不同类型的物品uRivalness竞争性uOneperson’sus

eofthegooddiminishesanotherperson’senjoymentofit.一个人使用一种物品减少其他人使用时该物品的特性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarc

ourt,Inc.FourTypesofGoods四种物品uPrivateGoods私人物品uPublicGoods公共物品uCommonResources共有资源uNaturalMonopolies自

然垄断Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TypesofGoods物品的类型uPrivateGoods私人物品uArebothexcludableandrival.既有排他性又有竞争性。

uPublicGoods公共物品uAreneitherexcludablenorrival.既无排他性又无竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TypesofGoods物品的类型uCommonReso

urces共有资源uArerivalbutnotexcludable.有竞争性但无排他性。uNaturalMonopolies自然垄断uAreexcludablebutnotrival.有排他性但无竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderivedite

mscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.FourTypesofGoodsRival?YesNoYesPrivateGoods•Ice-creamcones•Clothing•CongestedtollroadsNaturalMonopo

lies•Fireprotection•CableTV•UncongestedtollroadsNoCommonResources•Fishintheocean•Theenvironment•CongestednontollroadsPublicGoods•Nationald

efense•Knowledge•UncongestednontollroadsExcludable?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.四种物品类型竞争性是否是私人物品•冰激凌-•衣服•拥挤的收费道路自

然垄断•消防•有线电视•不拥挤的收费道路否共有资源•海洋中的鱼•环境•拥挤的不收费道路公共物品•国防•知识•不拥挤的不收费道路排他性Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc

.PublicGoodsnGoodsthatarenotexcludableand,therefore,areavailabletoeveryonefreeofcharge.äExternalitiesar

isebecausesomethingofvaluehasnopriceattachedtoit.äPeoplereceivebenefitswithouthavingtocompensateanyonefortheuseofscarc

eresources.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.公共物品n每个人都可以免费得到不具有排他性的物品。ä因为具有价值的东

西没有相应的市场价格，从而导致了外部性。ä人们从使用稀缺资源中得到利益而不必向任何人进行支付。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheFree-RiderProblem搭便车

问题Afree-riderisapersonwhoreceivesthebenefitofagoodbutavoidspayingforit.搭便车者——得到一种物品的利益但避开为此支付的人。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyrig

ht©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheFree-RiderProblemuSincepeoplecannotbeexcludedfromenjoyingthebenefitsofapublicgood,individua

lsmaywithholdpayingforthegoodhopingthatotherswillpayforit.uThefree-riderproblempreventsprivatemarketsfromsupplyingpublicgoods.Harc

ourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.搭便车问题u因为不能排除个人从公共物品中享受利益，所以他们不愿意自己支付成本，而希望他人支付。u搭便车者问题排除了私人市场提供公共物品。Harcourt,Inc.it

emsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SolvingtheFree-RiderProblemuThegovernmentcandecidetoprovidethepublicgood

ifthetotalbenefitsexceedthecosts.uThegovernmentcanmakeeveryonebetteroffbyprovidingthepublicgoodandpayingforitwithtaxrevenue.Harcourt,Inc

.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.解决搭便车问题u如果政府确信，总利益大于总成本，它就可以提供公共物品。u政府提供公共物品，并用税收为它支付，这样可以使每个

人的状况变好。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SomeImportantPublicGoods一些重要公共物品uNationalDefense国防uBasi

cResearch基础研究uProgramstoFightPoverty反贫困项目Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.AreLighthousesPublicGoods?灯塔是公共物品吗？Harc

ourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifficultJobofCost-BenefitAnalysisuCost－benefitanalysisreferstoastudy

thatcomparesthecostsandbenefitstosocietyofprovidingapublicgood.uInordertodecidewhethertoprovideapublicgoodornot,thetotalbenefitsofallthosew

housethegoodmustbecomparedtothecostsofprovidingandmaintainingthepublicgood.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.成本

—收益分析是一个难题u成本—收益分析是比较提供一种物品对整个社会带来的总收益和总成本的研究。u为了决定是否提供某种公共物品，必须将使用该公共物品的所有人得到的总利益与提供并维护该项公共物品的总成本进行比较。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyri

ght©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifficultJobofCost-BenefitAnalysisuAcost-benefitanalysiswouldbeusedtoestimatethetotalcostsa

ndbenefitsoftheprojecttosocietyasawhole.uItisdifficulttodobecauseoftheabsenceofpricesneededtoestimates

ocialbenefitsandresourcecosts.uThevalueoflife,theconsumer’stime,andaestheticsaredifficulttoassess.Harcourt,In

c.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.成本—收益分析是一个难题u成本—收益分析用来评估一个项目给整个社会能带来的收益和资源成本。u由于缺乏用来评估社会收益和资源成本的市场价格

，所以成本—收益分析是一项艰难的工作。u生命、时间和艺术的价值很难评估。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.CommonResources共有资源Commonr

esources,likepublicgoods,arenotexcludable.Theyareavailablefreeofchargetoanyonewhowishestousethem.共有资源与公共物品一样没有排他性。想使用共有资源的任何一个人都可以免费使用。

Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.CommonResources共有资源Commonresourcesareri

valgoodsbecauseoneperson’suseofthecommonresourcereducesotherpeople’suse.共有资源具有竞争性，因为一个人使用共有资源就减少了其他人对它的享用。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyri

ght©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TragedyoftheCommonsTheTragedyoftheCommonsisaparablethatillustrateswhycommonresourcesgetusedmorethanisdesir

ablefromthestandpointofsocietyasawhole.1.Commonresourcestendtobeusedexcessivelywhenindividualsarenotchargedfortheirusage.2.Thiscreatesane

gativeexternality.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.共有地的悲剧共有地的悲剧——一个寓言，说明从整个社会的角度看为什么共有资源的使用大于合意的水平。u当

个人免费使用共有资源时，共有资源往往被过度使用。u这就产生了负外部性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.ExamplesofCommonResources共有资源的

例子uCleanairandwater清洁空气和水uCongestedroads拥挤的道路uFish,whales,andotherwildlife鱼类、鲸鱼和其他野生动物Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.W

hyIsn’ttheCowExtinct?为什么黄牛没有绝种？PrivateOwnershipandtheProfitMotive!私人产权和利益驱动Willthemarketprotectme?市场保护我吗?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderivedite

mscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Conclusion:ImportanceofPropertyRightsThemarketfailstoallocateresourcesefficientlywhenprop

ertyrightsarenotwell-established(i.e.someitemofvaluedoesnothaveanownerwiththelegalauthoritytocontrolit).Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemsco

pyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.结论：产权的重要性当没有很好地建立产权时（这就是说，某些有价值的东西并没有在法律上有权控制它的所有者），市场就不能有效地配置资源。Harcourt,Inc.itemsan

dderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Conclusion:ImportanceofPropertyRights结论：产权的重要性Whentheabsenceofpropertyrightscausesamarketfailure

,thegovernmentcanpotentiallysolvetheproblem.当没有产权而引起市场失灵时，政府可以潜在地解决这个问题。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001

byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuGoodsdifferinwhethertheyareexcludableandwhethertheyarerival.uAgoodisexcludableifitispossibletopreventsomeonefromusingit.

uAgoodisrivalifoneperson’senjoymentofthegoodpreventsotherpeoplefromenjoyingthesameunitofthegood.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHa

rcourt,Inc.小结u物品的差别在于它们是否具有排他性和是否具有竞争性。u如果排除某个人使用某种物品是可能的，这种物品就具有排他性。u如果一个人对某种物品的享用排除了其他人享用同一物品，这种物品就具有竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderivedite

mscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuPublicgoodsareneitherrivalnorexcludable.uBecausepeoplearenotchargedforth

eiruseofpublicgoods,theyhaveanincentivetofreeridewhenthegoodisprovidedprivately.uGovernmentsprovidepublicgoods,makingquantitydecisionsbase

duponcost-benefitanalysis.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.小结u公共物品既无竞争性又无排他性。u由于不能对使用公共物品的人收费，所以在私人提供这种物品时

，就存在搭便车的激励。u政府提供公共物品，以成本—收益分析为基础作出供給量的决策。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuCommonresources

arerivalbutnotexcludable.uBecausepeoplearenotchargedfortheiruseofcommonresources,theytendtousethemexc

essively.uGovernmentstendtotrytolimittheuseofcommonresources.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.小结u共有资源具有竞争性但

无排他性。u由于不能向使用共有资源的人收费，他们往往过度地使用共有资源。u政府努力限制共有资源的使用。