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PublicGoodsandCommonResources公共物品和共有资源Chapter11Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinl

ifearefree...”FreegoodsprovideaspecialchallengeforeconomicanalysisMostgoodsinoureconomyareallocatedinmarkets……forthesego

ods,pricesarethesignalsthatguidethedecisionsofbuyersandsellers.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“生活中

最好的东西就是免费的…”免费物品向经济分析提出了特殊的挑战。在我们的经济中，大部分物品是在市场中配置的。…对这些物品来说，价格是引导买者和卖者决策的信号。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderivedit

emscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Whengoodsareavailablefreeofcharge,themarketforcesthatnorm

allyallocateresourcesinoureconomyareabsent.当一些物品可以免费得到时，在正常情况下，经济中配置资源的市场力量就不存在了。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderivedit

emscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Whenagooddoesnothaveapri

ceattachedtoit,privatemarketscannotensurethatthegoodisproducedandconsumedintheproperamounts.当一种物品没有价格时，私人市场就不能保证该物品生产和消费

的适当数量。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.“Thebestthingsinlifearefree...”“生活中最好的东西就是免费的…”Insuchc

ases,governmentpolicycanpotentiallyremedythemarketfailurethatresults,andraiseeconomicwell-being.在上述情况下，

政府政策可以潜在地解决市场失灵，并增进经济福利。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoodsWhenthinkingaboutthevariousgoodsint

heeconomy,itisusefultogroupthemaccordingtotwocharacteristics:uIsthegoodexcludable?uIsthegoodrival?Harcourt,Inc.itemsa

ndderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.不同类型的物品在考虑经济中的各种物品时，根据两个特点来对物品分类是有用的:u物品有排他性吗？u物品有竞争性吗?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditem

scopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoods不同类型的物品uExcludability排他性uPeoplecanbepreventedfromenjoyingthe

good.可以阻止一个人使用一种物品时该物品的特性uLawsrecognizeandenforceprivatepropertyrights.法律承认并对私人产权进行保护。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright

©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifferentKindsofGoods不同类型的物品uRivalness竞争性uOneperson’suseofthegooddiminishesanothe

rperson’senjoymentofit.一个人使用一种物品减少其他人使用时该物品的特性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.FourTypesofGoods四种物品uPriva

teGoods私人物品uPublicGoods公共物品uCommonResources共有资源uNaturalMonopolies自然垄断Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarco

urt,Inc.TypesofGoods物品的类型uPrivateGoods私人物品uArebothexcludableandrival.既有排他性又有竞争性。uPublicGoods公共物品uAreneitherexcludable

norrival.既无排他性又无竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TypesofGoods物品的类型uCommonResources共有资源uArerivalbutnotexcludable.有竞

争性但无排他性。uNaturalMonopolies自然垄断uAreexcludablebutnotrival.有排他性但无竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.FourT

ypesofGoodsRival?YesNoYesPrivateGoods•Ice-creamcones•Clothing•CongestedtollroadsNaturalMonopolies•Fireprotection•CableTV•Uncongest

edtollroadsNoCommonResources•Fishintheocean•Theenvironment•CongestednontollroadsPublicGoods•Nationaldefense•Kn

owledge•UncongestednontollroadsExcludable?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.四种物

品类型竞争性是否是私人物品•冰激凌-•衣服•拥挤的收费道路自然垄断•消防•有线电视•不拥挤的收费道路否共有资源•海洋中的鱼•环境•拥挤的不收费道路公共物品•国防•知识•不拥挤的不收费道路排他性Harcourt,Inc.

itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.PublicGoodsnGoodsthatarenotexcludableand,therefore,areavailabletoeveryonefreeofcha

rge.äExternalitiesarisebecausesomethingofvaluehasnopriceattachedtoit.äPeoplereceivebenefitswithouthavingtocompensateanyonefortheuseofscar

ceresources.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.公共物品n每个人都可以免费得到不具有排他性的物品。ä因为具有价值的东西没有相应的市场价格，从

而导致了外部性。ä人们从使用稀缺资源中得到利益而不必向任何人进行支付。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheFree-RiderProblem搭便车问题Afree-riderisapersonwho

receivesthebenefitofagoodbutavoidspayingforit.搭便车者——得到一种物品的利益但避开为此支付的人。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheFree-Rider

ProblemuSincepeoplecannotbeexcludedfromenjoyingthebenefitsofapublicgood,individualsmaywithholdpayingforthegoodhopingthatotherswillpayfor

it.uThefree-riderproblempreventsprivatemarketsfromsupplyingpublicgoods.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.

搭便车问题u因为不能排除个人从公共物品中享受利益，所以他们不愿意自己支付成本，而希望他人支付。u搭便车者问题排除了私人市场提供公共物品。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcou

rt,Inc.SolvingtheFree-RiderProblemuThegovernmentcandecidetoprovidethepublicgoodifthetotalbenefitsexceedthecosts.uThegovernmentcanmakeeveryonebettero

ffbyprovidingthepublicgoodandpayingforitwithtaxrevenue.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarc

ourt,Inc.解决搭便车问题u如果政府确信，总利益大于总成本，它就可以提供公共物品。u政府提供公共物品，并用税收为它支付，这样可以使每个人的状况变好。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyrig

ht©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SomeImportantPublicGoods一些重要公共物品uNationalDefense国防uBasicResearch基础研究uProgramstoFightPoverty反贫困项目H

arcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.AreLighthousesPublicGoods?灯塔是公共物品吗？Harcourt,Inc.itemsan

dderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifficultJobofCost-BenefitAnalysisuCost－benefitanalysisreferstoastudythatcompare

sthecostsandbenefitstosocietyofprovidingapublicgood.uInordertodecidewhethertoprovideapublicgoodornot,th

etotalbenefitsofallthosewhousethegoodmustbecomparedtothecostsofprovidingandmaintainingthepublicgood.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©20

01byHarcourt,Inc.成本—收益分析是一个难题u成本—收益分析是比较提供一种物品对整个社会带来的总收益和总成本的研究。u为了决定是否提供某种公共物品，必须将使用该公共物品的所有人得到的总利益与提供并维护该项公共物品的总成本进行比较。Har

court,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.TheDifficultJobofCost-BenefitAnalysisuAcos

t-benefitanalysiswouldbeusedtoestimatethetotalcostsandbenefitsoftheprojecttosocietyasawhole.uItisdifficulttodobecauseofthea

bsenceofpricesneededtoestimatesocialbenefitsandresourcecosts.uThevalueoflife,theconsumer’stime,andaestheticsarediffi

culttoassess.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.成本—收益分析是一个难题u成本—收益分析用来评估一个项目给整个社会能带来的收益和资源成本。u由于缺乏用来评估社会收益和资源成本的市场价格，所以

成本—收益分析是一项艰难的工作。u生命、时间和艺术的价值很难评估。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.CommonResources共有资源Commonresources,likepublicgoods,

arenotexcludable.Theyareavailablefreeofchargetoanyonewhowishestousethem.共有资源与公共物品一样没有排他性。想使用共有资源的任何一个人都可以免费使用。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemsc

opyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.CommonResources共有资源Commonresourcesarerivalgoodsbecauseoneperson’suseofthecommonresourcereduces

otherpeople’suse.共有资源具有竞争性，因为一个人使用共有资源就减少了其他人对它的享用。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001by

Harcourt,Inc.TragedyoftheCommonsTheTragedyoftheCommonsisaparablethatillustrateswhycommonresourcesgetusedmorethanisdesirablefrom

thestandpointofsocietyasawhole.1.Commonresourcestendtobeusedexcessivelywhenindividualsarenotchargedfortheirusage.2.Thiscreatesanegativeexternality.Ha

rcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.共有地的悲剧共有地的悲剧——一个寓言，说明从整个社会的角度看为什么共有资源的使用大于合

意的水平。u当个人免费使用共有资源时，共有资源往往被过度使用。u这就产生了负外部性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,I

nc.ExamplesofCommonResources共有资源的例子uCleanairandwater清洁空气和水uCongestedroads拥挤的道路uFish,whales,andotherwildlife鱼类、鲸鱼和其他

野生动物Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.WhyIsn’ttheCowExtinct?为什么黄牛没有绝种？PrivateOwnershipandtheProfitMotive!私人产权和利益驱

动Willthemarketprotectme?市场保护我吗?Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Conclusion:ImportanceofPropertyRightsThemarketfailstoall

ocateresourcesefficientlywhenpropertyrightsarenotwell-established(i.e.someitemofvaluedoesnothaveanowne

rwiththelegalauthoritytocontrolit).Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.结论：产权的重要性当没有很好地建立产权时（这就是说，某些有价值的东西并

没有在法律上有权控制它的所有者），市场就不能有效地配置资源。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.Conclusion:Im

portanceofPropertyRights结论：产权的重要性Whentheabsenceofpropertyrightscausesamarketfailure,thegovernmentcanpotentiallysolvetheproblem.当

没有产权而引起市场失灵时，政府可以潜在地解决这个问题。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuGoodsdifferinwhethertheyareexcludableandw

hethertheyarerival.uAgoodisexcludableifitispossibletopreventsomeonefromusingit.uAgoodisrivalifoneperson’senjoyme

ntofthegoodpreventsotherpeoplefromenjoyingthesameunitofthegood.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byH

arcourt,Inc.小结u物品的差别在于它们是否具有排他性和是否具有竞争性。u如果排除某个人使用某种物品是可能的，这种物品就具有排他性。u如果一个人对某种物品的享用排除了其他人享用同一物品，这种物品

就具有竞争性。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuPublicgoodsareneitherrivalnorexcludable.uBecausepeopleare

notchargedfortheiruseofpublicgoods,theyhaveanincentivetofreeridewhenthegoodisprovidedprivately.uGovernment

sprovidepublicgoods,makingquantitydecisionsbaseduponcost-benefitanalysis.Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001by

Harcourt,Inc.小结u公共物品既无竞争性又无排他性。u由于不能对使用公共物品的人收费，所以在私人提供这种物品时，就存在搭便车的激励。u政府提供公共物品，以成本—收益分析为基础作出供給量的决策。Harcourt,Inc.itemsandderiveditemsc

opyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.SummaryuCommonresourcesarerivalbutnotexcludable.uBecausepeoplearenotcharged

fortheiruseofcommonresources,theytendtousethemexcessively.uGovernmentstendtotrytolimittheuseofcommonresources.Har

court,Inc.itemsandderiveditemscopyright©2001byHarcourt,Inc.小结u共有资源具有竞争性但无排他性。u由于不能向使用共有资源的人收费，他们往往过度地使用共有资源。u政府努力限制共有资源的使用。